Middlemarch: Religion

Winterborne Clenston Church

“The most important thing to remember about religion in Victorian England is that there was an awful lot of it” (VicWeb)

Introduction

During the Victorian Age, issues of religion were particularly controversial in Britain. The established Church of England was no longer the sole religious force in Britain; Evangelists, Liberals and Catholics were becoming distinct sects within the country. The different doctrines associated with each religion governed all aspects of Victorian life–“Religion occupied a place in the public consciousness, a centrality in the intellectual life of the age” (War of Conscience). Victorian morality and virtues were governed by religious thoughts and teachings. Through their sermons on faith, the clergy were able to spread the “Word of God” to followers. They had the responsibility of engaging their congregations in prayer and service. In a time of religious turmoil, when pamphlets and texts spouting religious criticism were being produced, it was the clergy’s responsibility to uphold the faith of the congregation. The religious agitation that many Britons were experiencing during this time is referenced by Eliot in Middlemarch, which follows the lives of characters living in a provincial town that is deeply rooted in religion.

The Church

Historically

During the Victorian age, the Church of England experienced much change. There were religious movements competing for supremacy, and the church doctrine was being forced to widen in response. At this time, the three prominent schools within the Church of England were the Low Church, the High Church and the Broad Church. Geographically, the Low Church refered to the parishes and town churches found throughout the countryside of Britain. In these areas, where religious tradition was still widely practiced and upheld by parishioners, church attendance was much better than in the industrial towns and cities of Britain. Parishes usually provided services for more than one town, extending their boundaries to include the surrounding towns as well. The parishioners were a mix of all social classes and were led by a priest, vicar or clergyman (Mitchell, 239). Within the Low Church, the Evangelical movement was gaining momentum. Those who practiced Evangelicalism thought that “Bible-based Christian faith [was] a perfect, self-contained entity not subject to piecemeal amendment or selective acceptance” (Altick 207). They believed that the Bible was literally the “Word of God” and were deeply concerned with issues of church doctrine, liturgical practices and the ecclesiastical hierarchy.

The High Church refers to those churches and practitioners who supported and engaged in the Oxford Movement. This movement was highly concerned with the amount of power held over the church by the British government. It was born at the University of Oxford in July of 1833. It started out as a protest against the government, a political move designed to prevent the eventual loss of power within the church that they believed was imminent (Altick, 209-210). They emphasized the importance of liturgy and ritual in church practices which eventually led to the adoption of several Catholic conventions including the introduction of vestements and the acceptance of Eucharist during Communion.* The Broad Church refers to the religious liberals of the time. It was not a distinct group or organized movement but was a classification applied to those people who did not subscribe to Evangelicalism, the High Church, Catholicism, etc… It most closely resembles what would be called mainstream Protestant churches today. Individuals of the Broad Church were highly affected by the doctrines of German scholar’s, and, therefore, they did not promote the Bible as completely accurate chronicle of history but thought that “the scriptures should be read metaphorically or even mythologically” (Broad Church). They were brought together through their common beliefs and their rejection of exclusive doctrines and theologies. Altick writes that they were “imbued with the spirit of free inquiry [and] kept an open mind towards science” (208).

Literary Context

In her novel, Eliot refers to both the Low Church and Broad Church but not the High Church which doesn’t play a role in the story because it had not yet been formally established at the time the story was set. The focal point of religion in this story is on the village church in Middlemarch which Reverend Causabon presides over. The church is described early on in the story as “hardly larger than a parlor” and a place where all of the citizens of Middlemarch attend service (Ch. 1). There were two parsons in the story besides Causabon who delivered sermons at their parish, Mr. Farebrother and Mr. Tyke. Of the habits in the parish, we are only told a few things, but we can observe the ritual of a Sunday sermon in Chapter 47. From that we know that the church had a box where the rector would sit, pews for the parishioners and a choir to lead in the church hymns. In some cases, a parishioner would be described as or suspected of having an Evangelical outlook.

“Bulstrode had a deferential bending attitude in listening, and an apparently fixed attentiveness in his eyes which made those persons who thought themselves worth hearing infer that he was seeking the utmost improvement from their discourse. Others, who expected to make no great figure, disliked this kind of moral lantern turned on them. Hence Mr. Bulstrode’s close attention was not agreeable to the publicans and sinners in Middlemarch; it was attributed by some to his being a Pharisee, and by others to his being Evangelical.” (Ch. 8, beg)

Later in the story, Evangelicalism is mentioned again in reference to the Vincy’s. Lydgate muses, “The Vincys had the readiness to enjoy, the rejection of all anxiety, and the belief in life as a merry lot, which made a house exceptional in most county towns at that time, when Evangelicalism had cast a certain suspicion as of plague-infection over the few amusements which survived in the provinces” (Ch 16). All in all, evangelicalism is not presented in a positive light by Eliot; in her mentioning of it, a negative tone carries over to the reader.

While the Low Church is referenced repeatedly by Eliot, the High Church is not because while the Oxford Movement had been fully developed at the time she was writing the novel, it was still in its beginning stages during the time of Middlemarch. In Chapter 47 she says, “Even in 1831 Lowick was at peace, not more agitated by Reform than by the solemn tenor of the Sunday sermon” (Ch 47). It is possible that in this quote, she is refering to the rumblings of the future Oxford movement, and if so, this is the only reference she makes of the High Church. Of the Broad Church, Eliot refers to religious liberals in various sections of the story. The most prominent character that is described as a liberal is Mr. Brooke. In a scene where his political beliefs are discussed, Mrs, Cadwallader says, “I do believe Brooke is going to expose himself after all. I accused him of meaning to stand for Middlemarch on the Liberal side, and he looked silly and never denied it–talked about the independent line, and the usual nonsense” (Ch 6). With this reference, Eliot shows liberalism in a negative light. However, Eliot also shows liberalism in a positive light as well. In Chapter two, Mr. Brooke tells Mr. Causabon “that the Reformation either meant something or it did not, that he himself was a Protestant to the core, but that Catholicism was a fact; and as to refusing an acre of your ground for a Romanist chapel, all men needed the bridle of religion, which, properly speaking, was the dread of a Hereafter” (Ch 2). Here Brooke shows an open-mind and tolerance of other beliefs characteristic to the liberal’s of the time. Eliot weaves the religious turmoil of the early 19th century into her plot with casual references and a religious backdrop.

Clergymen

Historically

Within the Anglican Church (the Church of England) there was an organized hierarchy of power. At the head was the Monarch, or Supreme Governor, who was responsible for electing high officials within the church. Below him was the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Primate of England, who is the leader of the diocese, and then his sub-ordinates the Archbishop’s of York and Canterbury who are in charge of the southern and northern provenances. Following these men in the hierarchy from most important to least are the bishops, deaneries and clergymen/vicars/rectors (Parish). The men of the church that interacted most with everyday people were the clergymen, vicars and rectors—“A clergyman’s income depended on parish resources, and it could be quite substantial or barely adequate. He was called either ‘rector’ or ‘vicar,’ depending on how the parish was funded–they have the same status though” (Mitchell, 247). These men, mostly found in country parishes, were appointed to their position by either a bishop, cathedral chapter, college or a wealthy landowner in the area. They “conducted Sunday services, oversaw the village school, and performed marriages, baptisms and funerals” (Mitchell, 247). Their role within the community was integral; they interacted with the community on a daily basis and presided over every important event.

Literary Context

Eliot presents the clergy in Middlemarch through three characters: Mr. Causabon, Mr. Farebrother, and Mr. Tyke. We are shown an example of the process gone through when hiring a clergyman in Chapter 16. “The question whether Mr. Tyke should be appointed as salaried chaplain to the hospital was an exciting topic to the Middlemarchers…the proposed arrangement turned entirely on his objection to Mr. Tyke’s sermons, which were all doctrine, and his preference for Mr. Farebrother, whose sermons were free from that taint” (Chapter 16). A discussion of whose sermons were most enjoyable was a common topic among the citizens of Middlemarch. The opinions of each individual varied, but the general consensus was in favor of Mr. Farebrother; Mr. Tyke was too austere for many, and Mr. Causabon was more concerned with his scholarship than sermons. Mr. Farebrother’s “preaching was ingenious and pithy, like the preaching of the English Church in its robust age, and his sermons were delivered without book. People outside his parish went to hear him; and, since to fill the church was always the most difficult part of a clergyman’s function, here was another ground for a careless sense of superiority” (Chapter 18). Eliot’s inclusion of clergyman as prominent characters of the novel shows the importance of religion during this time and her understanding of the organization of the church; however, she doesn’t delve into the inner workings of the church or its hierarchy, only showing their role on a superficial level.

Religious Scholarship

Historically

Religion was an important aspect of daily life in Victorian England but questions concerning the validity of the stories and prophesies within the Bible were creating a schism between the church and the public. Previously, “religious faith and the sciences were generally seen to be in beautiful accordance. The study of God’s Word in the Bible and His Works in nature were assumed to be twin facets of the same truth” (Science & Religion). However, with the birth of religious scholarship/criticism, this ingrained belief in God’s Word and trust in the Bible was no longer considered to be absolutely warranted. “Biblical criticism was un-English, lacking in native roots and challenging the prevailing insularity. It was a German product. Hardly anybody read German [and] most did not think it worth reading” (Warfare of Conscience). The Germans, who were the leading scholars on this area of criticism and study, provided England with one of its most significant pushes towards the religious crisis that was to come about during the Victorian period; their findings and theories were not fully appreciated nor respected by all of England. Altick addresses the role of the German scholar in a description of the process they went through when formulating their thoughts, explaining that they would transform what was “in the form of the ‘lower’ (linguistic and textual) and, [derive] from it, the ‘higher’ (historical and interpretative) criticism of the Bible” (219). For these texts to reach the larger audience of the English population, translations were produced by writers who read and were able to write both German and English, such as George Eliot herself. In 1846, she translated one of the first texts to be translated, D. F. Strauss’ Life of Jesus. This text, which was considered radical by even the German’s, served as a reminder to the English population that higher criticism was not for them (Warfare of Conscience). Although many of the events pertaining to the religious turmoil of England during the Victorian age occur later rather than earlier in the 19th century, it is important that they are recognized because while they may not have been occurring in the time Middlemarch is set, they were occurring in the time Middlemarch was written.

Literary Context

While Eliot presents the activities of daily religious life through her various devout characters, the topic of religious criticism and scholarship can be found only in regards to Mr. Casuabon. On many occasions, he is referred to as a scholar whose life’s work revolves around his research in religious text. His work, the Key to All Mythologies, is referred to repeatedly throughout the story; however, we are never told exactly what it is about. The most elaborate mention of it occurs in Chapter 29 when Eliot describes Causabon’s work, she says “the difficulty of making his Key to all Mythologies unimpeachable weighed like lead upon his mind; and the pamphlets–or ‘Parerga’ as he called them—by which he tested his public and deposited small monumental records of his march, were far from having been seen in all their significance” (Ch 29, beg). In this description she allows a glimpse into the amount of work that Causabon has done on behalf of his work, but she doesn’t address the issues that he is confronting. We are told he is working to create an infallible argument, but we are not told what he is attempting to argue. Following this, there are several instances in which the popularity of German scholarship is mentioned by Will Ladislaw, Causabon’s nephew. He mentions the ignorance of English scholars, including Mr. Causabon, as well as their complete disregard and unwillingness to assess German texts. He explains, “The Germans have taken the lead in historical inquiries, and they laugh at results which are got by groping about in woods with a pocket-compass while they have made good roads. When I was with Mr. Causabon I saw that he deafened himself in that direction: it was almost against his will that he read a Latin treatise written by a German. I was very sorry” (Ch 21). In this passage, Eliot shows her profound knowledge of German texts and hints at the larger impact that these texts will have on England in the future, weaving the beginnings of religious turmoil into her story in a way that could easily be discerned by a knowledgeable contemporary reader.

Conclusion

In her novel, Eliot represents religion in many different facets. She delves into the different factions of the church, either representing or referring to their existence through characters and/or conversations in her story lines. She also addresses the role of clergyman in Victorian life, choosing to represent each character in a unique light. With this decision, she is able to present clergyman on a wider spectrum; each character representing the different ways in which clergyman may have existed historically–as a scholar, as a strict and austere leader or as a genial and kind-hearted counselor. Finally, Eliot addresses the issue of religious scholarship through the characters of Mr. Causabon and Will Ladislaw. Their roles within the story reference the popularity, or rather unpopularity, of German thought regarding the Bible among the English while still acknowledging the roads that had already been paved by their work. In Middlemarch, we can observe the brewing’s of the Victorian crisis of faith which was to come about later in the century and was in full swing while Eliot was writing her novel. Eliot intertwines the historical reality of religion in England with her characters and plot lines seamlessly so that the realities of religion can be observed by the reader in a subtle but direct way.

Return to Middlemarch

Works Cited

1. Altick, Richard D. Victorian People and Ideas. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1973.
2. Victorian Web: Science & Religion, War of the Conscience, Broad Church
3. Mitchell, Sally. Daily Life in Victorian England. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996.

Contributer

Diane Aiken